GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

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1. Introduction to Geography

  • Geography = Study of Earth, its features, people, and interactions.

  • Answers three major questions:

    • What is where?

    • Why is it there?

    • How does it change over time?

Main Branches

  1. Physical Geography – Natural features & processes

  2. Human Geography – Human activities & their impact

  3. Environmental Geography – Relationship between humans and environment

  4. Regional Geography – Study of specific regions of the world

2. Structure of the Earth



Layers of Earth

  1. Crust

    • Outermost layer

    • 5–70 km thick

    • Continental & oceanic crust

  2. Mantle

    • 2900 km thick

    • Semi-molten rock (magma)

    • Causes movement of tectonic plates

  3. Core

    • Outer Core: Liquid

    • Inner Core: Solid

    • Responsible for Earth’s magnetic field

3. Plate Tectonics

What are Plates?

  • Earth’s crust broken into large & small pieces called tectonic plates.

Types of Plate Movements

  1. Convergent Boundary

    • Plates collide

    • Forms mountains (Himalayas), volcanoes

  2. Divergent Boundary

    • Plates move apart

    • Creates mid-ocean ridges

  3. Transform Boundary

    • Plates slide past

    • Causes earthquakes (San Andreas Fault)

Major Effects

  • Earthquakes

  • Volcanoes

  • Tsunamis

  • Mountain formation

4. Landforms

Major Landforms

  1. Mountains

    • High elevated regions

    • Ex: Himalayas, Alps, Andes

  2. Plateaus

    • Raised flat areas

    • Ex: Deccan Plateau, Colorado Plateau

  3. Plains

    • Flat, fertile lands

    • Ex: Indo-Gangetic Plains

  4. Deserts

    • Dry, low rainfall

    • Ex: Sahara, Thar

  5. Coastal Areas

    • Beaches, cliffs, deltas

River Landforms

  • V-shaped valley

  • Waterfalls

  • Meanders

  • Oxbow lakes

  • Delta (Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta)

5. Atmosphere & Climate

Layers of Atmosphere

  1. Troposphere – Weather occurs here

  2. Stratosphere – Ozone layer

  3. Mesosphere

  4. Thermosphere

  5. Exosphere

🌦 Climate Controls

  • Latitude

  • Altitude

  • Distance from sea

  • Ocean currents

  • Winds

  • Topography

🌍 Major Climate Zones



  • Tropical Zone

  • Temperate Zone

  • Polar Zone

  • Mediterranean Climate

  • Monsoon Climate (India)

6. Hydrosphere

Components

  • Oceans (71% of Earth)

  • Rivers

  • Lakes

  • Groundwater

  • Ice caps

Ocean Names

  1. Pacific (largest)

  2. Atlantic

  3. Indian

  4. Arctic

  5. Southern Ocean

Water Cycle

  • Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Runoff → Infiltration

7. Biosphere

  • Zone of life on Earth

  • Includes plants, animals, microorganisms

  • Interacts with lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere

Biomes

  • Desert

  • Grassland

  • Forest (tropical, temperate)

  • Tundra

  • Marine biome

8. Human Geography

Key Areas

  1. Population Geography

    • Density, distribution, growth

    • High population: India, China

    • Low population: Deserts, mountains, polar regions

  2. Migration

    • Push & pull factors

    • Rural → urban shift common in developing countries

  3. Settlements

    • Rural, urban, semi-urban

    • Patterns: clustered, scattered, linear

9. Economic Geography

Agriculture

  • Depends on soil, climate, water, technology

  • Major crop regions:

    • Rice – India, China, Indonesia

    • Wheat – USA, Russia

    • Tea – India, Sri Lanka

    • Coffee – Brazil, Ethiopia

Industries

  • Factors: raw materials, labour, transport, energy

  • Examples:

    • Iron & steel – Jamshedpur

    • IT industry – Bengaluru

    • Textile – Mumbai, Ahmedabad

Transport

  1. Road

  2. Rail

  3. Air

  4. Water (cheapest)

  5. Pipelines

10. Environmental Geography

Major Environmental Issues

  • Air pollution

  • Water pollution

  • Deforestation

  • Global warming

  • Climate change

  • Biodiversity loss

Solutions

  • Renewable energy

  • Afforestation

  • Waste management

  • Conservation of water

  • Eco-friendly lifestyle

11. World Geography Quick Notes

Continents (7)

  • Asia (largest)

  • Africa

  • North America

  • South America

  • Europe

  • Australia

  • Antarctica (coldest)

Important Lines

  • Equator (0°)

  • Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N)

  • Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S)

  • Prime Meridian (0°)

  • Arctic Circle

  • Antarctic Circle

Famous Mountain Ranges

  • Himalayas

  • Rockies

  • Andes

  • Alps

Important Rivers

  • Nile (longest)

  • Amazon (largest volume)

  • Yangtze (Asia)

  • Mississippi (North America)

  • Ganga (India)

Deserts

  • Sahara (largest hot desert)

  • Gobi

  • Kalahari

  • Thar (India)

12. Indian Geography Notes

India – Physical Divisions

  1. Himalayan Region

  2. Northern Plains

  3. Peninsular Plateau

  4. Desert (Thar)

  5. Coastal Plains

  6. Islands (Andaman–Nicobar, Lakshadweep)

Major Rivers of India

Himalayan Rivers

  • Ganga

  • Yamuna

  • Brahmaputra

Peninsular Rivers

  • Godavari

  • Krishna

  • Kaveri

  • Narmada

  • Tapi

Soil Types

  • Alluvial Soil

  • Black Cotton Soil

  • Red Soil

  • Laterite Soil

  • Desert Soil

  • Mountain Soil

Indian Climate

  • Monsoon-based climate

  • Southwest monsoon (June–Sept)

  • Northeast monsoon (Oct–Dec in Tamil Nadu)

13. Importance of Geographical Knowledge

In Daily Life

  • Weather understanding

  • Travel planning

  • Disaster awareness

In Exams

  • UPSC

  • SSC

  • Railway

  • NDA/CDS

  • State PSC

  • Class 6–12

In Careers

  • Urban planning

  • Disaster management

  • Agriculture

  • Environment science

  • GIS mapping

14. Final Summary Notes

  • Geography connects Earth + humans + nature.

  • Helps understand climate, landforms, environment, population.

  • Important for students, exams, and real-life decisions.

  • Builds awareness about global issues and sustainable development.

FAQs– For Students & Competitive Exams

1. What is Geography?

Geography is the study of Earth’s physical features, climate, landforms, resources, and the relationship between humans and the environment.

2. What are the main branches of Geography?

  • Physical Geography

  • Human Geography

  • Environmental Geography

  • Regional Geography

3. Which is the largest continent in the world?

Asia is the largest continent.

4. Which is the longest river in the world?

The Nile River is considered the longest.

5. What is the difference between weather and climate?

  • Weather = Day-to-day condition of atmosphere

  • Climate = Long-term pattern of weather

6. What are tectonic plates?

Pieces of Earth’s lithosphere that float and move over the semi-molten mantle.

7. Which are the 3 major types of plate movements?

  • Convergent

  • Divergent

  • Transform

8. What are biomes?

Large ecological areas like deserts, forests, grasslands, tundra etc.

9. What percentage of Earth is water?

About 71% of Earth is covered with water.

10. Which is the largest ocean?

The Pacific Ocean.

11. What is the water cycle?

The process of evaporation → condensation → precipitation → runoff.

12. What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer?

It marks the northernmost point where the sun can be directly overhead.

13. What is the largest hot desert in the world?

The Sahara Desert.

14. Why is Indian monsoon important?

It provides more than 70% of India’s annual rainfall, crucial for agriculture.

15. Which river forms the largest delta in the world?

The Ganga–Brahmaputra Delta.

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